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In this episode of Moonshots, Peter Diamandis and Neil deGrasse Tyson discuss various topics related to space exploration, technology, and the future of humanity. They explore the likelihood of life on Mars, with Tyson suggesting a 50/50 chance for microbial life existing beneath the surface. The conversation shifts to the ongoing developments in space travel, particularly the competition between SpaceX and Boeing, and the significance of reusability in space missions. Tyson emphasizes that the routine nature of space travel today contrasts sharply with the past, where every launch was a major event. They speculate on the future of human presence in space, debating whether Mars or lunar colonies will be the next frontier. Tyson argues that the geopolitical landscape heavily influences space exploration, suggesting that the drive to explore Mars may depend on competition with nations like China. The discussion also touches on the role of AI and humanoid robotics. Tyson expresses skepticism about the necessity of humanoid robots, arguing that machines can perform tasks more efficiently without emulating human form. They consider the implications of AI on labor markets and the potential for new job opportunities, contrasting this with historical resistance to technological advancements. Tyson shares insights from his upcoming book, "Merlin's Tour of the Universe," which updates his earlier work and explores scientific concepts through a whimsical lens. They conclude by discussing the unpredictable nature of technological progress, emphasizing that predictions about the future often fall short due to the rapid pace of innovation. Throughout the conversation, Tyson maintains a critical perspective on the motivations behind space exploration and the societal implications of emerging technologies, while Diamandis advocates for the potential of private enterprise to drive advancements in space and beyond.

David Kipping discusses the possibility that humanity may be the only current civilization in the galaxy, suggesting that many civilizations may have existed but are now extinct. He emphasizes the short lifespan of technological civilizations, comparing it to the brief history of human development. Kipping's research at Columbia University focuses on "cool worlds," or exoplanets that could potentially support life, and he highlights the challenges in detecting these planets compared to hot Jupiters, which are easier to find due to their proximity to their stars. He explains the transit method used to discover exoplanets, noting that the alignment required for detection is rare, especially for Earth-like planets. Kipping also discusses the limitations of the Kepler mission, which primarily found hot planets and struggled to detect Earth-like ones due to its operational duration. Kipping expresses a desire to find moons and planets that resemble Earth, as they could harbor life. He mentions the TRAPPIST-1 system as a promising target for future research. The conversation shifts to the search for life in our solar system, particularly on Mars and the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, where signs of life could exist. Kipping discusses the challenges of detecting biosignatures and the importance of understanding what constitutes life. The discussion then moves to the ethical considerations of exploring other celestial bodies, emphasizing the need to avoid contaminating pristine environments. Kipping reflects on the potential for future missions to Venus and Mars, highlighting the importance of careful sample collection and the risks of introducing Earth microbes to other worlds. Kipping also touches on the implications of artificial intelligence and the potential for humanity to become a multiplanetary species. He expresses skepticism about the feasibility of colonizing Mars in the near future but acknowledges the importance of exploring other planets for scientific advancement. The conversation concludes with Kipping's thoughts on the nature of existence, the search for extraterrestrial life, and the significance of humanity's journey in the cosmos. He emphasizes the need for humility in understanding our place in the universe and the importance of leaving a legacy for future civilizations.

Neil deGrasse Tyson discusses the importance of addressing Earth's problems rather than relying on Mars as a backup for humanity. He argues that if we possess the technology to terraform Mars, we could similarly fix issues on Earth. Tyson expresses indifference toward how billionaires like Elon Musk spend their money, noting Musk's contributions to electric cars and space travel. He emphasizes that free speech should allow for the contest of ideas rather than suppression. Tyson also addresses the Fermi paradox, suggesting that the urge to colonize could lead to self-limiting conflicts among civilizations. He critiques the idea of messaging extraterrestrial life, asserting that aliens likely already know of our existence through radio signals. Tyson's upcoming book, "Starry Messenger: Cosmic Perspectives on Civilization," aims to provide a scientific lens on societal issues, emphasizing the need for rational thought in discussions about emotions and societal changes. He believes that enhancing scientific literacy can improve decision-making in society.

Christopher Mason discusses humanity's responsibility to prepare for eventual departure from Earth, emphasizing that it's not a matter of "if" but "when." He highlights the finite timeline we have, with significant changes expected in less than a billion years due to the sun's expansion. Mason views humanity as a unique guardian of life, possessing the awareness and capability to protect ecosystems and ensure survival. He introduces the concept of "deontogenic ethics," which posits a duty to preserve life and complexity, arguing that existence itself is a fundamental ethical obligation. Mason envisions a future where humans could travel to other star systems within 500 years, utilizing generation ships and advanced genetic technologies to adapt to space conditions. He acknowledges the challenges of long-duration space travel, including physical and psychological effects on astronauts. The conversation touches on the ethical implications of genetic modification for survival in space, advocating for a perspective that prioritizes the well-being of future generations. Ultimately, Mason believes that investing in space exploration can yield significant benefits for humanity, urging a balance between addressing earthly issues and exploring the cosmos.

Peter Diamandis recounts his journey to create Zero G, a company that offers weightless flights, which began when he was denied access to NASA's zero-G aircraft. Inspired by his childhood dreams of space exploration, he decided to start a company to allow others to experience weightlessness. After nearly a decade of battling bureaucracy, including the FAA's stringent regulations, he finally received approval in 2004. A pivotal moment came when he arranged a flight for Stephen Hawking, who believed humanity must expand into space to ensure its future. Despite initial concerns about Hawking's health, they successfully flew him in zero gravity, capturing his joyful smile on film. Zero G has since operated safely, offering flights for various occasions at a fraction of the cost of suborbital flights. Diamandis emphasizes the importance of space exploration for inspiring future generations and addressing existential threats facing humanity. He believes that the commercial space industry is on the brink of a renaissance, likening it to the first lungfish moving onto land, marking a significant shift in human exploration.

In a conversation titled "The Coming Age of Abundance," Peter Diamandis and Elon Musk discuss how advancements in technology, particularly AI and robotics, are fostering a future of abundance in areas like food, water, energy, healthcare, and education. Musk emphasizes the importance of optimism, arguing that negative news dominates media narratives, overshadowing positive developments. He highlights significant progress, such as the reduction of global extreme poverty from 90% in the 1800s to under 10% today and the dramatic decrease in child mortality rates. Musk also addresses energy sustainability, noting that solar and battery technologies can support a self-sustaining Earth. He points out that the current global population decline poses a risk, advocating for a civic responsibility to have children to prevent population collapse. The conversation touches on AI's potential to uplift humanity, with Musk asserting that AI should be designed to maximize truth-seeking and curiosity. They conclude by encouraging a positive mindset about the future, emphasizing that individuals today have unprecedented power to effect change. Musk believes that the most likely outcome is one of abundance, urging listeners to remain optimistic and proactive in shaping a better world.

In the new space age, Silicon Valley's innovators, rather than NASA or nation-states, are leading the charge. Ashley Vance, an investigative reporter, discusses his book *When the Heavens Went on Sale*, which captures the essence of commercial space exploration. He emphasizes the shift towards a more optimistic view of commercial space, highlighting figures like Pete Worden, who challenged NASA's bureaucracy and pushed for cheaper, more efficient space solutions. Worden's leadership at NASA Ames allowed for innovative projects that contrasted with traditional approaches. Vance also contrasts the motivations of various billionaires in space, noting that while Elon Musk's urgency stems from necessity, others like Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson lack the same drive. The conversation touches on the rapid growth of satellite launches and the implications for astronomy, with concerns about space debris and light pollution affecting scientific observations. The discussion extends to the potential of commercial space ventures, with Vance suggesting that the current era mirrors the early days of the internet. He believes that as technology advances, new opportunities will arise, including decentralized networks and global communication systems. Vance concludes by reflecting on the collaborative spirit of open-source software as a remarkable human achievement, underscoring the importance of innovation in shaping the future of space exploration.

In this episode of the Joe Rogan Experience, Joe Rogan, Elon Musk, and Jamie Vernon discuss various topics, including the current state of news and misinformation, the implications of AI, and the potential for space exploration. They express concern over the spread of false information across political lines and the chaotic nature of modern media. Musk humorously engages with AI, suggesting it has a mischievous personality, while Rogan and Vernon highlight the absurdity of conspiracy theories surrounding Fort Knox and the gold reserves. The conversation shifts to the potential dangers of AI, with Musk emphasizing the need for responsible development to avoid catastrophic outcomes. They discuss the importance of transparency in government and the influence of NGOs, with Rogan pointing out the systemic issues within bureaucracies that lead to waste and corruption. The discussion touches on the necessity of a second planet for humanity's survival, with Musk outlining plans for Mars colonization and the technological challenges involved. Rogan and Vernon also delve into the political landscape, examining the implications of immigration policies and the manipulation of public perception by media outlets. They critique the two-party system and the entrenched corruption within it, suggesting that the current political climate is a result of a failure to address systemic issues. The episode concludes with a focus on the importance of free speech and the challenges faced by those who speak out against the prevailing narratives, with Rogan expressing concern for his safety amidst the rising tensions.

Casey Handmer reflects on contrasts between ancient Rome and modern industrialization, arguing that Rome possessed the tech for industry but lacked the political and economic incentives to scale it, often punished innovators, and thus failed to sustain large-scale reform. He pivots to Mars terraforming and argues that while Mars has Earth-like qualities, achieving habitability hinges on warming the planet, with mass-produced solar cells from Earth as the most plausible route. He lays out ambitious timelines—about a decade—to dramatically boost warmth, and even sketches radical ideas like autonomous on-site factories producing nano-antennas to intensify greenhouse effects, or nuclear options that would require vast heat management strategies. The conversation then shifts to the practicalities and constraints of energy. Handmer emphasizes solar power as the scalable backbone of civilization’s energy future, critiques the limits of fossil fuels and some nuclear approaches, and argues that a massive solar rollout on Earth is the most viable path to long-term prosperity and technological acceleration. He expands on the mindset and culture of industrial founders, describing how the best builders are persistent, sometimes abrasive, and capable of turning adversity into progress. He discusses why many SpaceX alumni drift toward venture capital rather than creating durable, manufacturing-scale ventures, and why Habana-like disruption requires real, hands-on factory work, not just advisory roles. The dialogue covers how to nurture future Elons by letting talented people build, encouraging iteration, and resisting over-optimization that stifles bold experimentation. Handmer also talks about the personal dimensions of being a founder—the suffering, discipline, and day-to-day grind of making hard bets, including the value of practice, learning from mistakes, and the satisfaction of delivering tangible industrial output. The latter portion touches governance, societal incentives, and demographic challenges, examining housing policy, aging populations, and potential reforms to align economic growth with social needs. He closes by outlining a sweeping, almost cinematic vision for infrastructure: a solar-powered, digitally enabled civilization capable of transforming energy, materials, and space exploration, anchored by the belief that the hardware-first, hands-on approach is essential to advancing humanity. The episode features references to historical and contemporary figures and ideas to frame these ambitions, including discussions about Elon Musk, the broader tech ecosystem, and the potential for a solar-dominated energy renaissance to drive Mars exploration and Earth-based industry. Handmer emphasizes practical pathways over utopian rhetoric, promoting a culture of relentless, hands-on building and continuous learning as the engine of progress.

Joe Rogan and Elon Musk discuss a variety of topics, starting with Musk's unconventional ventures, including the flamethrower from The Boring Company, which Musk admits was a spontaneous idea inspired by a scene from the movie "Spaceballs." He emphasizes that the flamethrower was not a serious product, but it sold out quickly, showcasing the public's interest in novelty. Musk shares his thoughts on traffic in Los Angeles and his decision to dig tunnels as a solution, explaining that he has lived in LA for 16 years and found no other viable solutions to the city's traffic problems. He describes the engineering behind the tunnels, noting their safety during earthquakes and their unique construction method, likening them to a snake's exoskeleton. The conversation shifts to Musk's views on artificial intelligence (AI), where he expresses concerns about its potential dangers, particularly regarding its use as a weapon. He reflects on his past efforts to warn about AI risks and the slow pace of regulatory responses. Musk believes that while AI could lead to significant advancements, it will ultimately be beyond human control. They also discuss the societal implications of technology, including social media's impact on mental health and the human tendency to compare oneself to others. Musk argues that most people are inherently good and that societal negativity often stems from personal struggles and misinterpretations of others' actions. Musk shares his vision for a future where humanity becomes a multi-planetary species, emphasizing the excitement of exploring other planets and the importance of making life on Earth sustainable. He believes that technological advancements should focus on improving human experiences and fostering joy. The discussion touches on the role of love and compassion in society, with Musk advocating for kindness and understanding among people. He concludes by encouraging individuals to give others the benefit of the doubt and to recognize the goodness in humanity.

In this episode of "Into the Impossible," Brian Keating engages in a deep conversation with renowned astrophysicist Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson, exploring themes from his new book, "Merlin's Tour of the Universe." They discuss the realities of space exploration, including Tyson's recent critique of Elon Musk's plans for Mars colonization, which he elaborates on in his book originally titled "Failure to Launch." Tyson emphasizes the gap between public expectations and the actual progress in space technology, highlighting the complexities and challenges of human ambition in space. The discussion shifts to modern physics, touching on black holes and quantum mechanics. Tyson humorously notes that a singularity is where "God divides by zero," illustrating the enigmatic nature of these cosmic phenomena. He reflects on the concept of cosmic insignificance, arguing that understanding our place in the universe should not lead to emotional trauma but rather acceptance of our existence as a small part of a vast cosmos. Tyson also addresses the intelligence of non-human animals, challenging the notion that humans are uniquely conscious or intelligent. He cites examples of tool use in birds and discusses the evolving understanding of animal cognition, suggesting that our perception of intelligence may be limited by our own biases. The conversation includes anecdotes about his experiences with influential figures like Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan, emphasizing the importance of storytelling in science communication. Tyson expresses a desire to inspire curiosity and understanding in the public, advocating for a cosmic perspective that connects humanity with the universe. As they delve into the future of space exploration, Tyson critiques the motivations behind such endeavors, suggesting that geopolitical interests and economic returns often drive expensive projects rather than pure exploration. He argues that without a clear incentive, private ventures like Musk's Mars plans may not materialize as envisioned. The episode concludes with Tyson reflecting on the potential of fusion energy as a transformative technology, likening it to a future where clean energy could be abundant and accessible. He emphasizes the need for informed discourse in science and politics, advocating for a society that values objective truths over divisive opinions. Throughout the conversation, Tyson's wit and insight shine, offering listeners a blend of scientific knowledge and philosophical musings on humanity's place in the universe.

The discussion centers on the contrasting views of tech billionaires regarding the future of humanity, particularly in relation to space exploration and artificial intelligence (AI). Adam Becker critiques the belief that humanity must escape Earth to secure its future, arguing that this perspective undervalues the importance of preserving our environment and democracy. He highlights the flawed dichotomy between "AI boomers," who believe rapid AI development will solve problems, and "AI doomers," who fear AI will lead to humanity's extinction. Both groups share a misguided belief in the inevitability of superintelligent AI. Becker also addresses the unrealistic expectations of billionaires like Elon Musk regarding Mars colonization, emphasizing the harsh realities of space. He critiques the "effective altruism" movement, which prioritizes long-termism and population growth over quality of life, suggesting that this approach is fundamentally flawed. The conversation touches on the historical and philosophical roots of these ideas, linking them to religious notions of salvation and the quest for a better future. Becker expresses optimism about advancements in technology, particularly in healthcare and renewable energy, while cautioning against the ethical implications of generative AI and its potential to exacerbate societal biases. He concludes by emphasizing the need for a more just society that prioritizes the well-being of all individuals over unchecked technological progress.

In a discussion about the new White House administration, Salim Ismail shares three predictions: a grand bargain with China regarding Taiwan and trade, a potential universal basic income (UBI) scheme using cryptocurrency, and a housing code reform to facilitate temporary structures for rebuilding in disaster-stricken areas like LA. Peter Diamandis adds five predictions, including a renewed focus on space exploration, deregulation in biotech, a push for energy independence, and the integration of AI in policy evaluation. They discuss the significance of recent advancements in space exploration, highlighting the competition between Elon Musk's SpaceX and Jeff Bezos's Blue Origin. Both billionaires aim to revolutionize space travel, with Musk focusing on Mars and Bezos on lunar colonies. The conversation shifts to AI, emphasizing NVIDIA's advancements in autonomous vehicles and humanoid robots, and the potential for AI to streamline regulations and improve governance. They also touch on the implications of generative AI in material science, with Microsoft’s Matter Gen model poised to revolutionize material design. The discussion concludes with reflections on the societal impact of technology, including the potential for humanoid robots and the ethical considerations surrounding assisted death, as Ismail shares a personal experience with his father's passing. The overarching theme is the transformative power of technology and the need for society to adapt to these rapid changes.

Cosmology opens with a heated debate about the Big Bang that quickly broadens into how modern science tests ideas with telescopes, experiments, and curiosity. Anti‑Big Bang narratives—Flat Earth, tired‑light theories, and electric‑universe arguments—are cataloged alongside voices like Will Thornhill and Eric Lerner. The host asserts the mainstream view and cites the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background at Bell Labs in Homedale, New Jersey, by Penzias and Wilson, a three‑kelvin relic marking the early universe. From this, the universe’s 13.8‑billion‑year expansion and hydrogen isotope abundances are shown to align with the Big Bang. Technology and observation dominate the next segment. The atmosphere twinkles, so astronomers developed adaptive optics and space telescopes to sharpen images. Hubble provided optical views, while the James Webb Space Telescope focuses on infrared light. Ground‑based surveys like DESI and the Vera Rubin Observatory capture dynamic sky data, turning astronomy into time‑domain science. A fellow observer notes that a Vera Rubin session yielded thousands of asteroid discoveries, illustrating how new instruments accelerate discovery and broaden public access to data. The discussion also mentions the Simons Observatory and tests of dark matter with advanced detectors. Dark matter and dark energy dominate the cosmology storyline. Rubin, Burbage, and Zwicky established the need for unseen mass to explain galactic rotation, and projects continue to seek the particle nature of dark matter. The talk turns to cosmic birefringence and the Chern–Simons invariant as tests of light’s propagation, linking to the Simons Observatory. DESI’s early results challenge the idea of a strictly constant dark energy, suggesting time variation that could alter the expansion history and yield scenarios like deceleration or a big‑rip end. Measurements, not dogma, drive progress in this ongoing debate. Beyond physics, the dialogue turns to futurism and responsibility. The host weighs Mars exploration, Elon Musk, and the ethical stakes of expanding beyond Earth against protecting our home planet. They discuss the Drake equation and the rarity of long‑lasting civilizations, cautioning against optimistic assumptions about life elsewhere. Ultimately, the speakers champion science as a cumulative, self‑correcting process where being proven wrong advances truth. They honor Jim Simons’ influence and hint at a forthcoming project linking mathematics, finance, and cosmology, underscoring science as a collective human endeavor.

Lex Fridman converses with Konstantin Batygin, a planetary astrophysicist at Caltech, about the search for Planet Nine, a hypothesized object beyond Neptune that may have a mass of about five Earths and an orbital period of approximately 10,000 years. Batygin explains the structure of the solar system, distinguishing between the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), and discusses the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud, which contain numerous icy bodies and debris. The conversation touches on Pluto's reclassification from a planet to a dwarf planet due to its small size and the historical context of its discovery. Batygin describes the clustering of Kuiper Belt objects and how their orbits suggest the influence of a massive unseen body, potentially Planet Nine. He discusses the statistical significance of this clustering and the methods used to discover Kuiper Belt objects, emphasizing the challenges of observing distant celestial bodies. Batygin also explains the Oort Cloud, a spherical shell of icy objects surrounding the solar system, and the potential for interstellar objects, like Oumuamua, to provide insights into the nature of our solar system. He speculates on the possibility of life existing in the distant reaches of the solar system, suggesting that while it's unlikely, the vastness of space makes it statistically plausible. The discussion shifts to the implications of space exploration, the role of commercial space ventures, and the potential for future discoveries, including the possibility of finding Planet Nine. Batygin expresses skepticism about the idea of Mars as a new home for humanity, emphasizing the need to focus on Earth and its challenges. Fridman and Batygin explore the philosophical aspects of science, creativity, and the human condition, discussing how curiosity drives scientific inquiry and the importance of pursuing passions rather than merely checking boxes for success. They conclude by reflecting on the nature of exploration, the significance of music in Batygin's life, and the broader implications of scientific discovery for humanity's future.

This conversation features Lex Fridman and Dan Carlin, the host of Hardcore History and Common Sense podcasts. Lex expresses his admiration for Dan, describing him as a guiding voice through dark moments in history. They discuss the nature of human beings, questioning whether people are fundamentally good or capable of both good and evil, with Dan emphasizing the complexity of defining evil and the motivations behind actions that cause suffering. They explore historical figures like Stalin and Hitler, noting how both believed they were acting for the greater good, despite the immense suffering they caused. Dan reflects on the motivations of leaders throughout history and the importance of understanding their perspectives, even when their actions are deemed evil. He argues that motivations matter and that understanding them can provide insight into historical events. The conversation shifts to the role of violence and force in human society, with Dan suggesting that while violence may not be inherent to humanity, force is a necessary aspect of civilization. They discuss the potential for war and the challenges of maintaining peace, considering whether a united global entity could alleviate the need for conflict. Lex and Dan also touch on the impact of charismatic leaders and the potential for individuals to inspire positive change. They discuss the importance of love and empathy in countering hate and division, particularly in the context of modern media and societal challenges. Dan expresses skepticism about the media's role in exacerbating divisions but acknowledges the potential for platforms to foster unity. As the conversation progresses, they consider the future of humanity, including the possibility of becoming a multiplanetary species. Dan admires Elon Musk's efforts with SpaceX and Tesla, viewing them as steps toward addressing environmental issues and advancing human exploration. They conclude with reflections on the meaning of life and the enduring nature of human motivations throughout history, emphasizing the importance of understanding our shared humanity in navigating the complexities of existence.

The episode centers on Elon Musk’s remarks about artificial intelligence, intelligence expansion, and humanity’s role in a future dominated by advanced AIs. The host recounts Musk’s argument that humans may only hold a small fraction of total intelligence and that AI should be guided by values that propagate intelligence across the universe. The discussion then critiques the logic, questions whether expanding human civilization is a priority for post-AGI societies, and explores the potential tension between curiosity-driven AI and human control. The host contrasts Musk’s views with those of other commentators, notes perceived inconsistencies, and challenges the idea that a superintelligent system would disproportionately prioritize humans. The debate emphasizes urgency and uncertainty around AI futures.

Lex Fridman converses with Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist and futurist, discussing the future of humanity, artificial intelligence, and extraterrestrial life. Kaku expresses optimism about making contact with alien civilizations within this century, citing the discovery of thousands of exoplanets and the vast number of stars in the Milky Way and beyond. He categorizes civilizations on the Kardashev scale, suggesting that advanced civilizations could harness energy from stars or even dark energy. Kaku elaborates on the potential for digital immortality through AI and genetic engineering, predicting that future generations may be able to stop aging at a desired age. He envisions a future where brain-machine interfaces allow for telepathic communication and emotional sharing, fundamentally changing human relationships. The conversation touches on the possibility of colonizing Mars and terraforming it to support human life, emphasizing the need for a backup plan for humanity. Kaku believes that fusion power will be crucial for advancing civilization to Type I status on the Kardashev scale. He concludes by reflecting on the nature of existence, the potential for a multiverse, and the importance of scientific inquiry in understanding the universe.

Elon Musk discusses the future of humanity, emphasizing the importance of optimism and the need for a sustainable energy economy. He believes that with urgency and innovation, we can avoid climate catastrophe by 2050. Musk outlines three key components for a sustainable future: renewable energy generation (primarily solar and wind), battery storage, and electric transportation. He highlights the critical need for battery production, estimating that 300 terawatt hours of batteries will be necessary to transition to sustainability. Musk expresses confidence in achieving advancements in artificial intelligence, particularly in self-driving technology, which he believes will be solved soon. He discusses the potential of Tesla's humanoid robots, Optimus, to assist in various tasks, including household chores and manufacturing, and envisions a future where robots are commonplace in homes. On space exploration, Musk details the capabilities of Starship, designed for rapid reusability and capable of transporting humans to Mars. He anticipates the first crewed mission to Mars by 2029 and envisions a self-sustaining city on Mars, emphasizing the need for a million people to ensure its survival. Musk also addresses concerns about AI, advocating for a regulatory framework to ensure safety. He believes that humanity must expand its consciousness and tackle existential risks, including population collapse. Musk encourages the younger generation to take action to create a positive future, stating that the future can be shaped by our efforts.